यक्ष मल्ल

नेपालको इतिहासमा यक्ष मल्ल महान विजेता तथा प्रभावशाली व्यक्तिको रुपमा चिनिन्छ । यिनी अयास्थिती मल्लका नाति तथा ज्योती मल्लका छोरा थिए । यिनका जन्म वि। सं १४६५ मा भएको थियो ।बाबु ज्योति मल्लको शेषपछि वि।सं १४८५ मा राजगद्दीमा विराजमान भएका थिए । यिनी बाबुको शासनदेखि नै राजनीतिमा सकृय थिए । राजा हुने वित्तिकै राज्यलाई विस्तृत र मजबुत पार्न पट्टि लागेका थिए । उनका मन्त्री भिमदत्तको छोरा जयदत्तले भक्तपुरमा बिष्णुमूर्तिको स्थापना गरेका थिए । नेपालराज्येश्वर यक्षमल्ल राजाको विजय प्रचारको समयमा स्थापना भएको हो । भनि लेखमा लेखेका थिए । उनका अभिलेखअनुसार सांगा देखि पश्चिम भक्तपुर काठमाडौँ पाटन फर्पिङ्गमा यिनको पूरा प्रभुत्व छाएको थियो । नुवाकोटको वंशावलिमा नुवाकोटका वैस्प राजालाई हराएर १५३४ मा यक्षमल्ल आफै राजा भएर राज्य चलाइएको पाइन्छ । महापात्र महासामन्त र क्वाठनायकहरुलाई आफ्नो वशमा राखेर केन्द्रलाई शक्तिशाली तुल्याएका थिए । यक्षमल्लले आन्तरिक शक्ति दरिलो बनाएपछि बादा आक्रमण गरि अन्य देशमा पनि विजय प्राप्त गरी आफ्नो शासन कायम गरेका विभिन्न अभिलेखबाट देखिन्छ । कर्क प्याट्किले यक्ष मल्लले मोरङ तथा तिब्बतको शिकारजोङ सम्म जितेको उल्लेख गरेको पाइन्छ । यसरी यक्षमल्ले नेपालको सिमाना निकै फैलाएको देखिन्छ । कतिपय इतिहासकारनले यक्ष मल्लको यस दिगविजयमा शंका पनि उठाएका छन् । यक्षमल्ल भक्तपुरमा बसी शासन गर्दथे । र कान्तिपुर ललितपुर फर्पिङ बनेपा दोलखा आदि क्षेत्रमा पुस्तैनी अधिकार पाएका सामन्त शासकहरुको हैकम चल्दथ्यो । मल्ल राजाकै अधिनमा रहेता पनि यदाकदा केन्द्रसँग सरसल्लाह र सम्झौता गर्नु पर्दथ्यो । यसो नगरेमा शत्रुसँग मिल्न जाने सम्भावना हुन्थ्यो । यदि शत्रुसँग मिल्न गएमा केन्द्र र राज्यलाई हानी नोक्सानी हुने सम्भावना हुन्थ्यो । १५१० जेठमा सांखु ललितपुर फार्पिङ आदि क्षेत्रका सामन्त शासकहरुलाई पशुपतिको धर्मशीला छुवाई शपथ खुवाइएका थिए । ूशत्रुराज्यका कुरा नसुनी ढिला सुस्ती नगरी जो जहाँ छन् त्यहीबाट अघि सरी आवश्यक परेमा संगठित भएर हमला गर्नेूभन्ने कुरा त्यस ताम्रपत्रमा लेखेको छ । दोलखालाई पनि आफ्नो पक्षमा मिलाएर कौकी राज्यको विरोद्धी अभियान चलाएको भन्ने बुझिन्छ । यस अभियानमा सफलता मिलेको देखिन्छ । त्यसैले मिथिला र बङ्गाल जितेको बयान गरिएको थियो ।sान्तिपुर शहर लिच्छवीकालदेखि नै राजधानीको रुपमा रहेको थियो । यो शहर सबैभन्दा होचो भएकोले खाई र पर्खालले एउटा दुर्गका रुपमा राखेको थियो । ता पनि पूर्व मध्यकालमा लगातार बाहिरी आक्रमणले गर्दा आजित भएर अग्लो डाँडामा अवस्थित झतपुर शहरलाई राजधानी बनाउनु परेको थियो । उक्त गढ बनाउँदा चारैतिर सुरक्षाके लागि आवश्यक मिलाएर मात्रै आफ्नो बिजय अभियान चलाएको बुझिन्छ । यक्ष मल्लले सैनिक अभियान बाटै आफ्नो मल्ल राज्यलाई पूर्व बङ्गाल पश्चिम गोरखा तथा पाल्पा उत्तर तिब्बतको सिकारजोङ र दक्षिण गंगा सागरसम्म फैलिएको बुझिन्छ । यसरी यक्षमल्ल महान् विजेता तथा लडाकु शासक बने । यक्षमल्ल कट्टर हिन्दु धर्माबलम्बी थिए । तापनि शैव वैष्णव तथा अन्य धर्ममा पनि उनको समान आस्था थियो । यिनका पालामा धेरै मन्दिरहरु निर्माण भएको थियो । यिनका पालामा धेरै मन्दिरहरु निर्माण भएको थियो । बिष्णु शिव गणेश सरस्वती आदि देवदेवीका मन्दिरहरुका अभिलेखबाट थाहा पाउन सकिन्छ । उनले पशुपति मानेश्वरी देवीलाई इष्ट मान्ने गौरीशंकरका अवतार भन्ने प्रशस्ती लिइएको पाइन्छ । नारायणको मूर्ति स्थापनागरि लक्ष्मी नारायण पदबी पनि लिएको थियो । नेपालेश्वर नेपालमण्डलेश्वर निखिलेश्वर चक्रबर्ति आदि जस्ता पदबी लिएको कारणबाट नेपालमा उनी मात्रै एक शासकको रुपमा देखिन्छ । भक्तपुरको टौमढीटोलमा वि।सं १४९६ मा आमा संससारीदेवी र राजा यक्षमल्ल र जीवमल्ल भएर मन्दिर बनाई सुनको छाना र गजुर हाली मूर्ति स्थापना गरी सुन्धारा बनाएको देखिन्छ । आमाको मृत्युहुँदा ठूलो शोक मनाएर सुनको शालिक बनाएर पशुपतिभित्र राखिदिएर आमाको कैलाश बास होस भनेर दान दातव्य धेरै दिएको भन्ने चर्चा पाइन्छ । यक्षमल्ल पशुपतिको दर्शन गरेर मात्र खाना खान्थे तर एक दिन बर्षामा बागमति खोलामा बाढी आएर खोल्न तर्न नसक्दा उनी फर्केर दरबारमा भोकै बसेका थिए त्यस रात सपनीमा श्री पशुपति नाथलॆ दर्शन दिएर भक्तपुरमा नै मन्दिर बनाउने आज्ञा दिए । यक्षमल्लको मृत्यु पश्चात उनकी रानी किर्तिलक्ष्मीले पूजा गरेर सो मन्दिरमा २४ थान सिहंका सुनका टाउका चढाएकी थिइन् । विभिन्न मन्दिर र मूर्तिबाट उनको कला प्रेमी राजाको रुपमा पनि महत्वपूर्ण देखिन्छ । यसरी ५३ बर्षको शासन अवधी पछि ७३ बर्षको उमेरमा उनको मृत्यु भएको थियो । उनका तीन भाई छोरा थिए । राय मल्ल रत्न मल्ल र रण मल्ल । १५३८ मा यक्षमल्लको देहावासन भयो । यक्षमल्लका छोरीका छोरा भीम मल्ल गरी संयुक्त शासन उनको शेषपछि चलेको थियो । जेठा छोरा गद्दीमा बसेपनि तीनै भाई र भानिजको गरि संयुक्त शासन कायम भएको देखिन्ा आउँछ । माइला रत्न मल्ल चतुर थिए । १५१४ मा रत्न मल्लले कान्तिपुरका महापात्रलाई दवाएर आफ्नो शासन कायम गरेका थिए । केही भाइहरुलाई आफ्नो पक्षमा मिलाएर भक्तपुरका केही प्रदेशहरु कब्जा गर्न थाले । सुरुमा नुवाकोट र पछि ललितपुरमा समेत आफ्नो अधिकार कायम गरे । त्यरपछि आफ्नो भाइ रणमल्ल र भमनिज भिम मल्ललाई उचाल्न थाले । फलस्वरुप बनेपा सात गाँउ रणमल्लको शासन कायम भयो । यसरी कान्तिपुर र बनेपा स्वतन्त्र हुन पुग्यो । मल्ल राजखलकमा गृहकलह भएको मौकामा दोलखामा सामन्तहरुले टाउको उठाउने चेष्टा गर्न थाले। रत्न मल्लले कान्तिपुर तथा अन्य अन्य क्षेत्रलाई स्वतन्त्र बनाएकोमा राय मल्लले मान्यता दिएनन् । तर उनी आफैँ कमजोर पनि थिए त्यसकारण उनी हामी सवै भाइको संयुक्तहो भन्ने मात्र गर्दथे । उनले राखेको सम्पूर्ण अभिलेखमा राय मल्ल रत्न मल्ल राम मल्ल आदि सवै भाइ भासनजमो समेत संयुक्त शासन चलेको उल्लेख गरेका छन् । युबाट राय मल्ल जीवित छउन्जेल राज्य टुक््रुेको थिएन कि भन्ने भान पनि पर्दछ ।तर स्थिति अर्को थियो । यिनीहरुमा मेलमिलाप थिएन । १५५१ को भक्तपुरको यक्षेश्वर मनिदरको अभिलेखमा यो कुराको संकेत पाइन्छ । १५५२ को पशुपतिको भणडार अभिलेखमा स्पष्ट रुपले यिनीहरुको मेलमिलाप नभएको देखिन्छ । सो ताम्रपत्रमा भाइहरु र भानिजको संयुक्तको समूहले भत्तपुरका दाजु राय मल्ल र अरु भाइहरुको विरुद्ध एक हुन धर्म भाकि गरेको देखिन्छ । भक्तपुरेहरु कान्तिपुरे र ललितपुरेहरुलाई आगोपानि बन्द गरेर तथा राँको लगाएर दुःख दिने गर्दथे । राय मल्लको अन्तिम अवस्थामा झन सम्बन्ध विग्रेको देखिन्छ । १५६६ मा राय मल्लको मृत्युहुँदा रत्न मल्लले अग्नि संस्कार गर्ने अनुमति समेत दिएनन् । यसर्थ मल्ल राज्यको विभाजन यक्षमल्लका छोराहरु बिशेष रत्न मल्लको महत्वकांक्षी स्वभावले गर्दा भएको हो । यक्षमल्ल मरेको धेरै बर्ष पछिमात्र अनेक राज्यहरु देखा परेका हुँदा यक्षमल्लले राज्य विभाजन गरे भन्न मिल्दैन ।

media system in Russia

No. of daily newspapers in Russia: 2, 635
No. of televisions stations: 7,306
No. of radio stations: 953

The media and especially the press have played decisive roles in every major Russian social and political change in the twentieth century. They helped bring down the Czarist government in March, l9l7, and the Kerensky regime in the following November. They were essential in supporting the Soviet state in the 74 years of its existence. As the Soviet state began to break down, the independent press and other media began to play a decisive role in undermining that regime. In the end, they helped sound the death knell that brought down the Communist regime in December, l99l.
For a few years the press and other media enjoyed uncensored, unrestrained (and some might add, unprecedented) freedom in post-Soviet Russia. But it was short-lived. Just as they had in l9l7, economic problems in l99l first undercut Russian popular faith in the government, then in Russia's version of capitalism and finally in the entire democratic process. At the same time, economic problems and vulnerability weakened both the free press and undercut its own credibility. Like so many of the Russian people, the press has had to go "hat in hand," asking for economic support and help. And like so many of the Russian people, they had to pay a very high price for that help and support. Some may question if as of 2002 there really was a genuinely free and independent press in Russia. Certainly, economic realities had done far more to curb and weaken the independent press than any kind of overt government censorship and repression.
Contrary to George Kennan's article and thesis of l947, the Soviet Union was able to deal with containment,confrontation, and crisis. Indeed the country thrived on them. What Communism (and dictatorships in general) could not deal with was normality and prosperity, especially prosperity in other countries when the Russian people knew about that prosperity.
In the long run, perhaps the greatest hope for Russia's press may be prolonged periods of stability and prosperity. Once Russian consumers and enterprises can seize the commanding heights of Russia's economy, they may be able to create independent economic and financial bases, and these in turn may give the press and media political and editorial independence.
It was the belief of nineteenth-century Slavophils that Russia's mission was to suffer for the rest of Europe and all of mankind. In the twentieth century no nation suffered more in both peace and war than did Russia. Perhaps with a period of stability without the threat of foreign wars and invasions, Russia may finally begin to turn to its own needs and its own problems.
The maintenance of a free media is the keys to democracy in Russia. The question is how to maintain a free press. In 1900, many Russian writers and journalists believed the key to the situation was in cutting loose from government support and control. In the early 2000s, the question was how would the Russia media support themselves without government finances and interference.

condition of media in Russia

Overview of media in Russia

Russian TV broadcasting is dominated by channels that are either run directly by the state owned by companies with close links to the kremlin. The government controls channel one and Russia TV- two of the main three main federal channels- while state controlled energy giant Gazprom owns NTV. Critics say independent reporting has suffered as a result.

For most Russians, television, especially via the national networks, is the main source of domestic and international news. The broadcasting market is very competitive; state owned or influenced TV networks attract the biggest audiences. Hundreds of radio stations crowd the dial; state run networks compete with music- based commercial FM stations.

An English language satellite channel, Russia today, was launched in late 2005. The news- based station is funded by the kremlin and aims to present "global news from Russian perspective." There are more than 400 dailies, catering for every taste and persuasion. The major national are based in Moscow, but many readers in the regions prefer to take local papers. Several influential's dailies have been brought by companies with the close links to the kremlin.

The conflict in Chenchnya has been blamed for government attacks on press freedom. Journalist have been killed in chenchnya while others have disappeared or have been abducted. In Moscow and elsewhere journalist have been harassed or physically abused. Reporters investigating the affairs of the political and corporate elite are said to be particulary at risk.

Media rights organisation reporters without borders has expressed concern at the "absence of pluralism in news and information, an intensifying crackdown against journalists and the drastic state of press freedom in Chenchnya." According to internet world stats December 2008, around 38 million Russians use the internet.

condition of cultural heritage in our country

What will happen to the heritage of our country? This question will be asked by each and every generation of our country. That heritage which has make us proud with glory now is such in a deterioration which in the future we"ll not be able to say "it is our wealth and the glory". Even though when we knew that it is our wealth and the glory we are not been active enough to protect our glory. We clearly knew the fact that our country is been renowned because of those heritage even though we are not taking any strong step towards its development. When we walk through those heritage we feel pity and just close the topic and just blame the government for not doing the maintainence but we also have to be conscious about it and take a strong step towards its development and maintenance. instead of blaming to the government it's time for us to take a strong step. As now says that youths are the hands of the future so here comes the chance for the youths to do something. Even though it's hard to manage the financial fund but if we try it would be more helpful. Don't just feel pity towards the heritage but try to do something for it.

Global media

Humans are considered to be the small unit of the world. After the individual forms a family after that society. Then society combines into an nation than a whole world after that. When we see that an individual had lead towards a whole world then we wonder how we are being able to be connected in a single way of communication. It is alway a question on how we wre been able to be connected in a one way then because of this the concept of global media comes. To be global it comes from a single step to the advance level. The simple starting of the communication is from intrapersonal communication which is within the communication with the own body. Then when the family is formed then interpersonal communication started which means the interreaction of the two people started and it leads the way towards the society. With theformation of the society there comes the formation of group and after that organizations. When different organization is formed than the mass is formed of national level then slowly it becomes the international level.
First of all the must important thing to know is globalization. Globalization, in simple tearms means the phenemenon which had made the existence of global society.Whereas, talking about media than it helps us to bring togetherand get the knowledge from it.media connects to the world and bring people together in by emotionally and informatively.Media is effected by globalization and vice versa. When these get connected than we can get a whole world connected in a single way. Npwadays in tearms of society we had reach over to global society whereas, in terms of communication we had reach to mass communication of global scale.
so it is how the concept of global media which is made to connected the world globally.

Radio Nepal

Radio nepal , from this word we think it as a government radio. We have heard this name since our childhood to till now. We could say that it is the first radio established in our country. It was established in 1 april 1951. The first FM-Channel covering Kathmandu valley and adjoining areas was started in 1995 from its premises at Singh Durbar, Kathmandu. Radio Nepal recognizes that its primary obligation is to serve its listeners. It has been providing various programs aimed at creating mass awareness in its attempt to reflect the views of all sections of the society.It has different programmes that is run in the radio nepal. They are regional, national, educational, entertainment and information.Radio Nepal launched the first FM Channel in Nepal on he 30th of Kartik 2052 B.S.(16th Nov.1995). The FM Channel airs programmes on 100 MHz on the FM band through a 1 KW stereo transmitter installed at Khumaltar, Lalitpur. A fairly well equipped studio with stereo facilities has been established at Singh Durbar. This studio along with the provision of a standby studio has made it possible to broadcast programmes live. Radio Nepal has a policy of leasing out its air time to private parties to broadcast programmes on its FM channel by permitting private operators to use their own staff. These programmes have proved to be very popular among the urban youth of Kathmandu.
Radio Nepal has its own studios for programme production, music recording, drama recording, talks shows and news broadcasts. A music library at its premises in Singh Durbar has a collection of about 40,000 songs. Foreign broadcasting Stations also make use of our Studio facilities and transmitters for live and other broadcasts on a rental basis.
The Broadcasting Headquarters at Singha Durbar in Kathmandu has two broadcasting houses consisting of one drama studio, two music studios, one reporting studio, three continuity studios, one news studio and seven programme production studios. One of the music studios is equipped with a 24 track recording facility. This studio is open for hiring purposes for anyone desirous of recording music digitally whether solo track or for albums after payment of studio charges which are very relatively reasonable compared to other private studios.
The complex also has one open air live theatre facility for functions and musical performances.
In an attempt to reach interested listeners world wide, Radio Nepal has entered the Internet since April 1997.From its modest beginning, Radio Nepal has expanded considerably over the years. With over 600 staff members in different divisions and the acquisition of equipment in tune with the technological innovations, Radio Nepal aims to emerge as the media for the millions in Nepal as well as across national frontiers.
There are plans for fill in stations at different parts of uncovered areas and the operation of a second channel in the existing premises to cope with the increasing demand for more air time from different INGOs and NGOs.
Few small FM stations to be operated with the partnership of local agencies like the Municipalities and District Development Committees are being established in the remote districts.
Radio Nepal faces the challenges of moving with the changing times in the light of the new innovations in broadcast technology. Most of its outdated transmission equipment needs to be replaced or refurbished. In program production, the digitization process has already been started, but a lot needs to be done. With the good wishes of all its listeners Radio Nepal aims to offer quality and distinctiveness in addition to its responsibility to inform, educate and entertain.

Madan puraskar pustakalaya

The Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya is the principal archive of books and periodicals in the nepali language. The Library is a not-for profit, non-governmental institution that is run by a trust whose members are eminent men and women of letters of Nepal. In addition to the archival collection which is at the center of its focus, the Library is well known for its continuing work in the areas of publishing, education and training. It also manages two of Nepal's most prestigious literary prizes, the Madan Puraskar and the Jagadamba Shree. With beginnings as a private collection in the mid-1940s, the Library has expanded continuously over the decades, keeping pace with the development of the Nepali language in the modernizing nation state of Nepal, and in the hills of North India.
The first acquisitions for what was later to become the Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya were made in the mid-1940s by a Kathmandu schoolboy, with pennies that came from his lunch allowance. As the personal collection grew, it attracted gifts in kind from several important literary personalities, statesmen and scholars of Nepal and India.
In 1956, the collection received an endowment from Rani Jagadamba Kumari Devi Rana. Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya was officially registered in 1985, under Organizations Registration Act of 1977. The present chairman of the library is kamal mani dixit. It is situated at the patan dhoka, lalitpur. It has preserve the oldest daily newspaper awaz and its 1st edition . We should be very thankful to see their effort to preserve those.